Year by year
China's research output, 2000–2025. Authors and Institutions are illustrative: derived from the papers trend until they are counted.
Papers
China's annual research output across all capabilities, 2000–2025.
Source: Global Institute for National Capability (GINC), 2026. Research records from OpenAlex and the sources set out on the Methodology page
AuthorsIllustrative
Distinct Chinese authors active each year, 2000–2025 (illustrative).
Source: Global Institute for National Capability (GINC), 2026. Research records from OpenAlex and the sources set out on the Methodology page
InstitutionsIllustrative
Chinese institutions publishing each year, 2000–2025 (illustrative).
Source: Global Institute for National Capability (GINC), 2026. Research records from OpenAlex and the sources set out on the Methodology page
China · Capability Leaderboard
China's strongest capabilities, ranked by output: L5Y is the last-five-year paper count (2021–2025) and 5Y% its five-year growth. Auth, a standing score, is a placeholder until the corpus is counted. Badges are coloured by dimension: hard, soft and economic. Select L5Y, 5Y% or Auth to re-sort; select it again to flip the direction.
| Rank | Capability | Dimension | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Machine learning | Hard | 94.5K | +267% | 92 |
| 2 | Electric batteries | Hard | 41.0K | +75% | 98 |
| 3 | Advanced robotics | Hard | 22.6K | +134% | 94 |
| 4 | Natural language processing | Hard | 21.7K | +147% | 96 |
| 5 | Autonomous systems operation technologies | Hard | 20.6K | +184% | 89 |
| 6 | Smart materials | Hard | 18.9K | +52% | 94 |
| 7 | Radar | Hard | 18.7K | +70% | 88 |
| 8 | Additive manufacturing | Hard | 12.2K | +145% | 96 |
| 9 | Photonic sensors | Hard | 11.8K | +49% | 90 |
| 10 | Aviation, Rotary Wing & Unmanned Systems | Hard | 10.4K | +200% | 90 |
| 11 | Supercapacitors | Hard | 10.2K | +0% | 88 |
| 12 | AI Tools & Applications | Hard | 10.1K | +498% | 97 |
| 13 | Distributed ledgers | Hard | 9.5K | +227% | 85 |
| 14 | Advanced magnets and superconductors | Hard | 9.4K | +19% | 83 |
| 15 | Adversarial AI | Hard | 7.7K | +526% | 92 |
| 16 | Coatings | Hard | 7.7K | +43% | 90 |
| 17 | DCO | Hard | 7.7K | +116% | 92 |
| 18 | Photovoltaics | Hard | 7.5K | +26% | 81 |
| 19 | Wide and ultrawide bandgap semiconductors | Hard | 7.5K | +57% | 79 |
| 20 | Fuel and Storage | Hard | 7.4K | +207% | 82 |
| 21 | Advanced composite materials | Hard | 6.9K | +57% | 87 |
| 22 | Hydrogen and ammonia for power | Hard | 6.9K | +167% | 83 |
| 23 | Vaccines and medical countermeasures | Hard | 6.5K | +173% | 79 |
| 24 | Novel metamaterials | Hard | 6.2K | +88% | 80 |
| 25 | Strategic Materials & Processing | Economic | 5.6K | +98% | 82 |
| 26 | Quantum computing | Hard | 5.1K | +74% | 78 |
| 27 | Advanced Manufacturing Capacity | Economic | 5.0K | +134% | 77 |
| 28 | Critical minerals extraction and processing | Hard | 5.0K | +93% | 73 |
| 29 | Advanced optical communication | Hard | 4.9K | +29% | 82 |
| 30 | Sonar and acoustic sensors | Hard | 4.9K | +70% | 75 |
Hard Capability
Hard capability is the science of material power — the technologies, defence systems and critical infrastructure that let a nation build, defend and project physical strength. It spans Critical Technology, National Security and Strategic Infrastructure.
Top 10 overall · Hard Capability
- Critical Technology
- National Security
- Strategic Infrastructure
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 478.5K |
| 2 | United States | 265.7K |
| 3 | India | 207.5K |
| 4 | United Kingdom | 82.9K |
| 5 | Germany | 76.3K |
| 6 | Japan | 50.2K |
| 7 | Italy | 49.2K |
| 8 | South Korea | 49.0K |
| 9 | Canada | 44.2K |
| 10 | Australia | 41.3K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Machine learning | 94.5K |
| 1 | Electric batteries | 41.0K |
| 1 | Advanced robotics | 22.6K |
| 1 | Natural language processing | 21.7K |
| 1 | Autonomous systems operation technologies | 20.6K |
| 1 | Smart materials | 18.9K |
| 1 | Radar | 18.7K |
| 1 | Additive manufacturing | 12.2K |
| 1 | Photonic sensors | 11.8K |
| 1 | Aviation, Rotary Wing & Unmanned Systems | 10.4K |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 26.1K |
| 2 | Tsinghua University | 13.2K |
| 3 | Zhejiang University | 9.2K |
| 4 | Shanghai Jiao Tong University | 8.8K |
| 6 | University of Chinese Academy of Sciences | 7.8K |
| 7 | Harbin Institute of Technology | 7.3K |
| 8 | Beijing Institute of Technology | 6.9K |
| 9 | Peking University | 6.1K |
| 10 | University of Electronic Science and Technology of China | 5.9K |
| 13 | Northwestern Polytechnical University | 5.2K |
Critical Technology
The technologies that decide strategic advantage — artificial intelligence, advanced computing, biotechnology, energy, robotics and novel materials. Measures research output across the frontier fields a nation must master to compete and defend itself.
In Critical Technology, China leads the world with 420.2K papers published over 2021–2025, ahead of United States (224.2K) and India (172.7K). This is a domain where Chinese research sets the global pace.
Its strongest capability here is Machine learning, where China ranks #1 globally with 94.5K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Chinese Academy of Sciences, the world's number-one institution in this field, on 24.3K papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 420.2K |
| 2 | United States | 224.2K |
| 3 | India | 172.7K |
| 4 | United Kingdom | 68.3K |
| 5 | Germany | 64.9K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Machine learning | 94.5K |
| 1 | Electric batteries | 41.0K |
| 1 | Advanced robotics | 22.6K |
| 1 | Natural language processing | 21.7K |
| 1 | Autonomous systems operation technologies | 20.6K |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 24.3K |
| 2 | Tsinghua University | 12.2K |
| 3 | Zhejiang University | 8.7K |
| 4 | Shanghai Jiao Tong University | 8.3K |
| 6 | University of Chinese Academy of Sciences | 7.5K |
National Security
Defence-relevant science spanning intelligence, surveillance, autonomous systems, cyber operations and military platforms. Measures the research base underpinning a nation's hard-security capability.
In National Security, China leads the world with 27.0K papers published over 2021–2025, ahead of United States (14.9K) and India (14.5K). This is a domain where Chinese research sets the global pace.
Its strongest capability here is Aviation, Rotary Wing & Unmanned Systems, where China ranks #1 globally with 10.4K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Chinese Academy of Sciences, the world's number-one institution in this field, on 1.4K papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 27.0K |
| 2 | United States | 14.9K |
| 3 | India | 14.5K |
| 4 | United Kingdom | 4.8K |
| 5 | Italy | 3.2K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Aviation, Rotary Wing & Unmanned Systems | 10.4K |
| 2 | DCO | 7.7K |
| 1 | Imagery & Geospatial Intelligence | 4.0K |
| 1 | Satellites & Constellations | 1.5K |
| 1 | Technical & Scientific Intelligence | 1.4K |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 1.4K |
| 2 | Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications | 960 |
| 3 | Beihang University | 818 |
| 4 | Northwestern Polytechnical University | 798 |
| 5 | Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics | 774 |
Strategic Infrastructure
The physical and digital backbones a society runs on — energy grids, telecommunications, data, transport and space. Measures capability to build, operate and secure critical systems.
In Strategic Infrastructure, China leads the world with 31.3K papers published over 2021–2025, ahead of United States (26.6K) and India (20.3K). This is a domain where Chinese research sets the global pace.
Its strongest capability here is AI Tools & Applications, where China ranks #3 globally with 10.1K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is North China Electric Power University, the world's number-one institution in this field, on 968 papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 31.3K |
| 2 | United States | 26.6K |
| 3 | India | 20.3K |
| 4 | United Kingdom | 9.8K |
| 5 | Germany | 8.4K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 3 | AI Tools & Applications | 10.1K |
| 1 | Fuel and Storage | 7.4K |
| 1 | Data Resources | 2.1K |
| 1 | Spectrum & Satellites | 2.1K |
| 1 | Transiton and Distribtuon | 1.7K |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | North China Electric Power University | 968 |
| 2 | State Grid Corporation of China (China) | 759 |
| 3 | Tsinghua University | 654 |
| 4 | Shanghai Electric (China) | 453 |
| 6 | China Southern Power Grid (China) | 445 |
Soft Capability
Soft capability is the science of influence and institutions — the governance, human capital and information capacity that shape how a nation is run and how it is seen. It spans Governance & Integrity, Human Capital and Information & Influence.
Top 10 overall · Soft Capability
- Governance & Integrity
- Human Capital
- Information & Influence
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | 39.4K |
| 2 | China | 16.7K |
| 3 | United Kingdom | 14.6K |
| 4 | Indonesia | 12.9K |
| 5 | India | 10.9K |
| 6 | Germany | 7.7K |
| 7 | Australia | 7.3K |
| 8 | Spain | 6.6K |
| 9 | Canada | 6.0K |
| 10 | Italy | 5.4K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 2 | Advanced/AI Competence | 4.8K |
| 4 | Health Access & Coverage | 1.2K |
| 2 | Heritage & Institutions | 1.1K |
| 3 | Language & People-to-People Exchange | 872 |
| 2 | Global Language Reach | 790 |
| 2 | Resilience & Stability | 714 |
| 2 | Population Health Outcomes | 683 |
| 2 | Digital Access & Usage | 647 |
| 2 | Disinformation Resilience | 516 |
| 3 | Emergency Preparedness | 415 |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 28 | Peking University | 146 |
| 40 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 126 |
| 90 | Chinese University of Hong Kong | 67 |
| 117 | Wuhan University | 41 |
| 134 | Shantou University | 33 |
| 140 | Tsinghua University | 30 |
| 141 | Sun Yat-sen University | 30 |
| 142 | University of Chinese Academy of Sciences | 30 |
| 144 | Beijing Normal University | 29 |
| 146 | Zhejiang University | 28 |
Governance & Integrity
The institutions that make a state function — rule of law, anti-corruption, public administration, crisis response and public trust. Measures the scholarly foundation of effective governance.
In Governance & Integrity, China ranks #4 worldwide with 2.2K papers over 2021–2025, behind United States (6.2K). It is among the largest producers but does not yet lead the field.
Its strongest capability here is Emergency Preparedness, where China ranks #3 globally with 415 papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Renmin University of China, ranked #25 worldwide, on 22 papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | 6.2K |
| 2 | United Kingdom | 2.3K |
| 3 | Indonesia | 2.3K |
| 4 | China | 2.2K |
| 5 | India | 1.3K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 3 | Emergency Preparedness | 415 |
| 1 | Policy Predictability | 376 |
| 2 | Crisis Coordination | 200 |
| 4 | Anti-Corruption Framework | 198 |
| 3 | Trust in Institutions | 120 |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 25 | Renmin University of China | 22 |
| 44 | Central University of Finance and Economics | 16 |
| 59 | Tsinghua University | 12 |
| 64 | Sun Yat-sen University | 11 |
| 77 | Xi'an Jiaotong University | 10 |
Human Capital
The people behind capability — skills, education, health, digital competence and the R&D workforce. Measures investment in the talent that sustains national capability.
In Human Capital, China ranks #2 worldwide with 9.1K papers over 2021–2025, behind United States (22.6K). It is among the largest producers but does not yet lead the field.
Its strongest capability here is Advanced/AI Competence, where China ranks #2 globally with 4.8K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Chinese Academy of Sciences, ranked #44 worldwide, on 97 papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | 22.6K |
| 2 | China | 9.1K |
| 3 | Indonesia | 8.2K |
| 4 | India | 7.5K |
| 5 | United Kingdom | 7.1K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 2 | Advanced/AI Competence | 4.8K |
| 4 | Health Access & Coverage | 1.2K |
| 2 | Population Health Outcomes | 683 |
| 2 | Digital Access & Usage | 647 |
| 1 | R&D Intensity | 414 |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 44 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 97 |
| 46 | Peking University | 92 |
| 85 | Zhejiang University | 23 |
| 103 | Tsinghua University | 13 |
| 105 | Xi'an Jiaotong University | 12 |
Information & Influence
Soft power and the contest for narrative — language reach, cultural exchange, media resilience and disinformation defence. Measures capability to project and protect influence.
In Information & Influence, China ranks #2 worldwide with 5.4K papers over 2021–2025, behind United States (10.6K). It is among the largest producers but does not yet lead the field.
Its strongest capability here is Heritage & Institutions, where China ranks #2 globally with 1.1K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Chinese University of Hong Kong, ranked #30 worldwide, on 58 papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | 10.6K |
| 2 | China | 5.4K |
| 3 | United Kingdom | 5.1K |
| 4 | Spain | 3.1K |
| 5 | Germany | 2.8K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 2 | Heritage & Institutions | 1.1K |
| 3 | Language & People-to-People Exchange | 872 |
| 2 | Global Language Reach | 790 |
| 2 | Resilience & Stability | 714 |
| 2 | Disinformation Resilience | 516 |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 30 | Chinese University of Hong Kong | 58 |
| 34 | Peking University | 52 |
| 52 | Wuhan University | 36 |
| 61 | Shantou University | 33 |
| 76 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 23 |
Economic Capability
Economic capability is the science of production and exchange — the industrial, trade and financial systems that generate and circulate wealth. It spans Production & Innovation, Investment & Trade and Financial Strength.
Top 10 overall · Economic Capability
- Production & Innovation
- Investment & Trade
- Financial Strength
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 38.1K |
| 2 | United States | 30.2K |
| 3 | India | 15.9K |
| 4 | United Kingdom | 14.7K |
| 5 | Germany | 11.7K |
| 6 | Indonesia | 11.1K |
| 7 | Russia | 10.3K |
| 8 | Italy | 8.1K |
| 9 | France | 6.1K |
| 10 | Australia | 5.7K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Strategic Materials & Processing | 5.6K |
| 1 | Advanced Manufacturing Capacity | 5.0K |
| 1 | Foundational Industries | 2.8K |
| 1 | Innovation Activity | 2.7K |
| 1 | Factor Productivity | 2.1K |
| 1 | Logistics & Customs Efficiency | 2.0K |
| 3 | Entrepreneurial Activity | 1.5K |
| 1 | External Investment Reach | 1.2K |
| 1 | Industrial Technology Diffusion | 853 |
| 4 | Banking Stability | 792 |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Central South University | 854 |
| 2 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 817 |
| 3 | University of Science and Technology Beijing | 727 |
| 11 | Northeastern University | 455 |
| 13 | Tsinghua University | 427 |
| 15 | Wuhan University of Technology | 385 |
| 16 | Shanghai Maritime University | 373 |
| 17 | Shanghai Jiao Tong University | 366 |
| 18 | University of Chinese Academy of Sciences | 358 |
| 19 | Zhejiang University | 339 |
Production & Innovation
Industrial capacity and the commercialisation of ideas — advanced manufacturing, materials processing, productivity and innovation systems. Measures the research engine behind economic output.
In Production & Innovation, China leads the world with 25.1K papers published over 2021–2025, ahead of United States (16.2K) and India (10.7K). This is a domain where Chinese research sets the global pace.
Its strongest capability here is Strategic Materials & Processing, where China ranks #1 globally with 5.6K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Central South University, the world's number-one institution in this field, on 854 papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 25.1K |
| 2 | United States | 16.2K |
| 3 | India | 10.7K |
| 4 | United Kingdom | 7.8K |
| 5 | Germany | 7.7K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Strategic Materials & Processing | 5.6K |
| 1 | Advanced Manufacturing Capacity | 5.0K |
| 1 | Foundational Industries | 2.8K |
| 1 | Innovation Activity | 2.7K |
| 1 | Factor Productivity | 2.1K |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Central South University | 854 |
| 2 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | 759 |
| 3 | University of Science and Technology Beijing | 727 |
| 6 | Northeastern University | 455 |
| 7 | Tsinghua University | 398 |
Investment & Trade
The flows that connect economies — logistics, supply chains, ports, capital movement and foreign investment. Measures research capability in the infrastructure of global commerce.
In Investment & Trade, China leads the world with 7.0K papers published over 2021–2025, ahead of United States (3.8K) and United Kingdom (2.1K). This is a domain where Chinese research sets the global pace.
Its strongest capability here is Logistics & Customs Efficiency, where China ranks #1 globally with 2.0K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Shanghai Maritime University, the world's number-one institution in this field, on 373 papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 7.0K |
| 2 | United States | 3.8K |
| 3 | United Kingdom | 2.1K |
| 4 | Russia | 2.0K |
| 5 | India | 1.9K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Logistics & Customs Efficiency | 2.0K |
| 1 | Transport & Connectivity Networks | 774 |
| 1 | Ports & Shipping Capacity | 686 |
| 1 | Participation in Production Networks | 633 |
| 1 | FDI Inflows & Outflows | 348 |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Shanghai Maritime University | 373 |
| 2 | Dalian Maritime University | 310 |
| 4 | Wuhan University of Technology | 189 |
| 5 | Beijing Jiaotong University | 168 |
| 8 | Zhejiang University | 91 |
Financial Strength
The depth and stability of the financial system — banking, capital markets, monetary policy and financial inclusion. Measures the knowledge base behind economic resilience.
In Financial Strength, China ranks #2 worldwide with 6.0K papers over 2021–2025, behind United States (10.1K). It is among the largest producers but does not yet lead the field.
Its strongest capability here is External Investment Reach, where China ranks #1 globally with 1.2K papers. The heaviest-publishing Chinese institution in the domain is Renmin University of China, ranked #17 worldwide, on 81 papers.
Top Nations
| Rank | Nation | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | 10.1K |
| 2 | China | 6.0K |
| 3 | United Kingdom | 4.7K |
| 4 | Indonesia | 3.9K |
| 5 | India | 3.2K |
China · Top Capabilities
| Rank | Capability | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | External Investment Reach | 1.2K |
| 4 | Banking Stability | 792 |
| 1 | Equity & Bond Markets | 559 |
| 2 | Cross-Border Capital Flows | 532 |
| 2 | Financial Inclusion | 470 |
Top Chinese Institutions
| Rank | Institution | Papers |
|---|---|---|
| 17 | Renmin University of China | 81 |
| 26 | University of International Business and Economics | 56 |
| 30 | Fudan University | 52 |
| 43 | Southwestern University of Finance and Economics | 39 |
| 44 | Xi'an Jiaotong University | 36 |